ojibwe burial customs

As survivors we carry an extra responsibility to make sure that our truth is told. After the feast relatives will smoke or burn a final offering of tobacco in the fire. When a loved one dies, the Ojibwe people prepare the body by cleaning and dressing it in special clothing. Cemeteries. The first burials may have taken place as long as 50,000 years ago, but the oldest known intentional burial site is Qafzeh in Israel, which dates back almost 10,000 years. In reclaiming those things we have a responsibility to share what we learn. After Millard Fillmore became president on Taylor's death in 1850, another Ojibwe delegation visited Washington in . During the fur trade period of the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Ojibwe allied with the Dakota, agreeing that the Ojibwe would provide the Dakota with trade goods, and the Ojibwe could live west towards the Mississippi River. "Sometimes people want to put things together that make sense to them that may not make sense to theological orthodoxy.". Traditionally we lived by cultivating corn and squash, by hunting and fishing, and . Miigwech El, I could not have said it better myself. Others, such as the Navajo, would refuse to use the name of the person for at least a year after their death, in the belief that it would call back their spirit from the afterlife. Treaty of Penn with Indians by Benjamin West. An Algonquian language, Anishinaabem is not a single language, but rather a chain of linked local varieties, with nearly a dozen different dialects. My brother did a DNA test and learned he is Ojibwe, so assuming I am wanted to learn where we descended from and reading your response to sharing your ways made me cry. On our land in northeast Wisconsin. I always tell them, when they see the northern lights, that's our people up there dancing.". Before starting the process, the body handlers smeared ash all over their bodies. Our culture is one of inclusion, acceptance, and understanding. Ojibwe historical and spiritual beliefs were passed down to succeeding generations by teaching, birch bark scrolls and rock art pictographs. When walking away from the plate it is important that you do not look back, as this may attract the spirit to follow you. "Chippewa Burial and Mourning Customs." American Anthropologist . Below you will find a very brief overview of the Chippewa people. We loved to hear from our readers like you who are impacted by an article and share it with a friend. (Figure 8, Densmore 1979:55). (1988). It sounds like your federal service was quite interesting. In the 16th century, the Anishinaabeg split from the Potawatomi and the Odawa, settling at Boweting, Gichigamiing, near what would become Sault Ste. Warriors preceded the colonizers and ordered to clear I scratched out their clan markers, four crosshatched bears and a marten(Erdrich, p.5). Marie on Lake Superior. In the first chapter, Nanapush ignores his fears and follows tradition by giving the deceased a proper burial, even taking the time to carve their clan marker. In 1918, the Ojibwe lost more land on the point in a legal dispute with the Interstate Railroad Co., when a small village was forcibly moved and a nearby Ojibwe burial ground was bulldozed, with remains reburied at a Superior cemetery. Food is placed in a open area outside. The tribe created birch bark scrolls with writing used in the religious rites, but also containing knowledge of religion, geometry and mathematics. An Ojibwe family grieves for a year following the death of a loved one. The church's cemetery has burials of both Christians and followers of Ojibwe tradition. Each clan was named for its animal totems. Amen, My Fathers Mother was born in Canada and claimed native blood. Some of the tribes bury their dead in caves or ravines, walled in with rocks, some in trees, on a scaffolds or buried in or on the ground. Howard, James H. (1965). Ceremonial drums . "A little food goes a long way in that world.". The bodies are tightly wrapped in blankets and shawls. "The Ojibwe People: History and Culture." In Chippewa Customs is an illustration of an upside down lunate that was given to a small child to be worn around the neck. Usually, the coffin would be laced in a burial ground marked by a wooden slate with the deceaseds clan sign engraved. For example, some Plains and Pacific Northwest tribes practiced above-ground burials; tribes in the Mississippi River area built chambered mounds; and Native Americans in the Southwest and Southeast used earthenware . We are still here after 500+ yrs of attempted extinction that continues today. The Ojibwe originally lived in wigwams. Speech competition for high school girls in Minnesota welcomes applications through March, Duluth Polar Plunge makes a splash for Special Olympics. The Ojibwe religion infiltrated into every part of life. The Anishinaabeg (singular Anishinaabe) is the umbrella name for the Ojibwe, Odawa, and Potawatomi nations. I am very greatful for the information shared here. They place birch bark matches inside the casket with the body, so that the spirit can use the matches to make fires along its journeyto the other world. The Ojibwe culture has a strong dichotomy of leadership, with an emphasis on separate military and civil leaders; and a keen agility for alliance and negotiation. Older and younger generations than the speaker are addressed with the same collective term. Other rituals were focused on trying to safely guide the spirit to its home in the afterlife. It's usually something the deceased enjoyed, like a can of Coke, an orange or cigarettes. When someone dies, Staples' job is to send the spirit to another world, he said. American Indian people are heterogeneous and their histories differ based on . un fortunately if you wish to shift it forward things have to change if we can get the right words it will make it easier. 1737: The Dakota uprising against the French. The Ojibwe are part of an Indigenous group of people known as Anishinaabeg. Not wanting to insult or disrespect him or his family I sought to learn of Ojibwe traditions. They are the third largest tribe in the United States, after the Cherokee and Navajo. I plan on learning all I can to better understand who I am. During the first four nights, tobacco and food are offered to the spirit, while it revisits everywhere it had been on Earth. People of your clan are considered to be your brother, sister, uncle, or aunt. Chippewa Customs. The world has no idea who we really are except what Hollywood, government, and the Christian religions have taught. We still have totems or clans, what we call odoodeman. From Lake Superior, the Ojibwe people spread north of Lake Ontario, around Lake Huron, and north of Lake Michigan. 's://ssl':'://www')+'.google-analytics.com'+'/siteopt.js?v=1&utmxkey='+k+'&utmx='+(x?x:'')+'&utmxx='+(xx?xx:'')+'&utmxtime='+new Date().valueOf()+(h? There are five main dialects of Ojibwe: Western Ojibwe, Eastern Ojibwe, Northern Ojibwe (Severn . Totem poles are symbolic carvings, sometimes used as memorials for important members of the tribe. The misunderstanding was definitely a mixed blessing, but it did supply the Ojibwe with information about European plans and lifestyles, even if it led to some internal discord. One said that the Ojibwe must move west or perish, and that they . If they do attend, they wear black on their foreheads to signal the spirits they will not go with them to the afterlife. When settlers from Europe began colonising America in the 15th and 16th Centuries, they brought with them Christianity. Staples had to tell the younger generation what to do for Reynolds' funeral, she said. Tracks. The Anishinaabeg reckon that humans are comprised of a physical body and two distinct souls. We only occupy a physical body during this lifetime. The nucleus of the Ojibwe world was the island of Michilimackinac ("the great turtle"), famous for pike, sturgeon, and whitefish. The soul must be strong enough not to stop and eat the berries or they will be trapped in. Each of the new communities created during their long history in the Great Lakes region is autonomous, and each has its own history, government, and flag, as well as a sense of place that cannot be easily distilled. Food and water are laid to rest with the body to help the soul travel to the afterlife. lmfao people need to respect our ways or else you want random ass people snatching the rug right from underneath us, Again!! Today, the Ojibwe reside in more than 150 federally recognized communities in Canada and the United States. American author Harry Behn smokes a ceremonial pipe, a common ritual within Native American culture. If they ask someone living to come with them, it is acceptable to say no (Meier). i think this is the purest one i have ever seen because it is so fierce and its not to try to be anything its in the face of a royal canadian police officer evicting them from their traditional lands the time is coming so near but the way i see it we have one chance to preserve the little chance we have to he ONE PLANET of HUMANS living an authentic free will existence and thriving in a resource based economy where all needs are met without being a wage slave, completely disenfranchised, or an undeserving overlord,,, not controlled by symbols, white jesus, blood quantums, or borders we dont have to kill everything we should just collectively agree to not participate. "There isa reason for us existing on this earth, a reason that the creator put . And coordinator of the Before I Die NM Festival and an expert on end-of-life downsizing and organizing. In some rare instances, tribes would construct a special kind of totem pole to commemorate the dead. Welcome to our site, dedicated to respecting and understanding the customs and cultures of the Chippewa Tribe of American Indians. Weve never been allowed the voice to teach the world who we are, from us. I am slowly learning the customs and history of our great people. Create a class Museum of Ojibwe history and culture. The deceased were dressed in fine clothes, wrapped in bark, and buried (or in older times when the ground was frozen, placed on high scaffolds) with the goods needed on the journey to the afterworld. The wake is a ceremony for returning the body to Mother Earth, the round . They believed in creation, and the Chippewa had extensive teachings regarding the origin of ceremonies and ritual. And like mainstream religions, there are regional variations in the core beliefs. The beliefs held by each tribe member influenced the way he viewed himself and viewed the world around. They also offer tobacco, one of the four sacred medicines the Ojibwe traditionally use. The deceased is often buried with a few items of importance, for belief that they will be of use in the after life. I have many different parts to me: Irish, Sicilian, Lithuanian, Russian and my great, great grandmother was Sioux. The language is a member of the Algonquian family of languages, which have a very different linguistic structure than English. See disclaimer. Do you know that the most recent tally of indigenous childrens bodies found on residential school land is around 9,000 currently? It was thought that the ash would protect them from evil spirits. The soul loss theory is better developed in Arctic America and western Canada than elsewhere in the New World, probably because of Asiatic influence, or perhaps to some measure the American cultures may . elcome to our site, dedicated to respecting and understanding the customs and cultures of the Chippewa Tribe of American Indians. An Ojibwe family grieves for a year following the death of a loved one. They used a combination of thoughtful adaptation and factioning to stave off the incursions of Europeans. The Chippewa hold social gatherings (pow-wows or "pau waus") in summer in their reservations. "Just as talking about sex won't make you pregnant, talking about funerals won't make you dead . "A lot of beautiful things, too. These scrolls are hidden and guarded by societies, who also are responsible for their interpretation. The Ojibwe welcomed them into their communities, seeing them as agents of alliance with the Europeans, while the ABCFM saw their role as straight-up converting the people to Christianity. JANA HOLLINGSWORTH covers American Indian issues. Each family who has lost someone holds a feast for the entire village. Come with me as I visit, observe, and document this traditional Native American burial site in Wisconsin. Aanii! We are just now starting to reclaim the things that were stolen from us. It is the primary activator of all the plant spirits. The traditional Ojibwe religion, Midewiwin, sets down a path of life to follow (mino-bimaadizi). "The grandkids took care of the fire, staying up with it all night," she said. Cree. Upon the death of a tribal member, the family creates a paper snake made of birch and hangs it by the front door. According to tradition, which is supported by linguistic and archaeological studies, the ancestors of the Anishinaabeg migrated from the Atlantic Ocean, or perhaps Hudson Bay, following the St. Lawrence Seaway to the Straits of Mackinac, arriving there about 1400. Related to the Mexican festival of Dia de los Muertos, on this day Native Americans would leave food offerings and decorate their homes with ears of corn. When the creator puts a person on the Earth, they are given a purpose, and once that purpose is fulfilled our physical body dies and our spirit passes on into the afterlife. Whether youre studying times tables or applying to college, Classroom has the answers. "The spirit of the relative is making a fire, so the first night they can visualize the first part of the journey," he said. They are told to avoid eye contact with people in case the spirit tries to speak to them through someone else. Even though you feel your intentions are good, you are treating Henry like a child. In this case, rituals were especially important. Lee Staples, a spiritual leader for the Mille Lacs Indian Reservation in Central Minnesota, says that one must understand Ojibwe beliefs about life in order to understand Ojibwe beliefs about death. Prehistoric Burials And The Origins Of Mysticism. We only occupy a physical body during this lifetime. He provides them with a list of requirements, including deerskin moccasins for the dead to be buried in. KEYWORDS: ojibwe legend ojibwa legends ojibway legend chippewa legends oral story oral tradition Indian legend myth children's story for kids buy art posters Indian art prints art print AUTHOR: Ojibwe Oral Legend Long ago there was only summer. They continued expanding west, south, and northward, and first met French fur traders in 1623, in what would become the eastern half of the upper peninsula of Michigan. Its always nice to hear that our content has helped someone to help others who are dealing with the death of someone they love. When the meal is finished, tobacco is passed again to smoke or place in the fire. I disagree this is put on line. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=9&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CGsQFjAI&url=http%3A%2F%2Fnielsenmt-bc.tripod.com%2Fsitebuildercontent%2Fsitebuilderfiles%2Famericanindianspiritualityhandout.doc&ei=_uuFU8isNqfNsAST-oCABQ&usg=AFQjCNFvGoKmvNe9p4_MUkU4PQBbrg0Q7g&bvm=bv.67720277,d.cWc, https://www.flickr.com/photos/graeme_pow/6246007648/in/photostream/, http://classroom.synonym.com/ojibwe-funeral-traditions-6115.html, http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=9&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CGsQFjAI&url=http%3A%2F%2Fnielsenmt-bc.tripod.com%2Fsitebuildercontent%2Fsitebuilderfiles%2Famericanindianspiritualityhandout.doc&ei=_uuFU8isNqfNsAST-oCABQ&usg=AFQjCNFvGoKmvNe9p4_MUkU4PQBbrg0Q7g&bvm=bv.67720277,d.cWc. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/ojibwe-people-4797430. . "They don't go anywhere," he said. Introduction to American Indian Spirituality for Hospice Professionals. JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources. '.webs.com' : 'none'; --> The Ojibway people were the largest and most powerful of all the tribes inhabiting the Great Lakes region of North America. I have to guess that its NOT because excavators, etc., ignore any human remains they find, not because they are careful of Native sacred sites, but because they wouldnt immediately know whether the body was Native or European, so theyd likely report it. A controversial belief among some Ojibwe, Staples said, is that spirits who died practicing a religion other than the traditional Ojibwe faith remain in limbo. Relatives tend to the fire, keeping it lit around the clock until the day of the burial, on the fifth day. The burned-over areas, however, resulted in an increase in berry crops. The Ojibwe people today reside on small reservations or in small towns or urban centers. The tribe was organized in various bands and the traditional residence was a wigwam. 3 Funeral Customs. Ojibwe parents may practice smudging charcoal on children before bed to prevent them from falling vulnerable to wandering spirits. On the Fond du Lac Reservation, a fire is lit at the home of the deceased the day of the death. Taking care of graves Du Vernet showed a fascination and respect for Ojibwe burial practices throughout his diary. After successfully defeating the temptations, the passing soul will come across a river with a slippery log which they must cross. You are not the first white to say this kind of thing. But not many people will talk about traditional funerals, he said. . All of them can be used to smudge with, though sage, cedar, and sweetgrass also have many other . Thanks for sharing this. Without knowing your culture and what was sacred to your people, they caused destruction and pain. Many Ojibwe chiefs went to Washington in 1849 and begged President Zachary Taylor to allow them to stay. The tribe created birch bark scrolls with writing used in the religious rites, but also containing knowledge of religion, geometry and mathematics. Their name is from the Indian word "adawe," meaning "traders," because they had long been known as intertribal traders and barterers. Three other plants, sage, cedar, and sweetgrass, follow tobacco, and together they are referred to as the four sacred medicines. Here are some examples: Navajos choose family members to mourn. "He doesn't know it, but if he gets lonely, he may take someone with him," said Jones, an Ojibwe language instructor at Fond du Lac Tribal and Community College, about the dead at a spring language session on the reservation. Information in these records should be . Tribal History & Historical Photos Protecting Sovereignty while moving forward to maintain the traditions of the past. "That's not what we're taught," he said. 1702: Queen Anne's War (1702-1713) and the tribe fight with the French. _udn = "none"; They settled all sides of Lake Superior and lived near the headwaters of the Misi-ziibii, today spelled Mississippi. That path honors promises and elders, and values behaving moderately and in coherence with the natural world. Minnesota National Parks: Dark Forest, Open Prairies, Wild Rivers, Canadas National Day for Truth and Reconciliation, Facts About Canada's Geography, History, and Politics, The Untold History of Native American Enslavement, The History of the American Indian Movement (AIM), Arapaho People: Indigenous Americans in Wyoming and Oklahoma, The Largest Lakes in the US by Surface Area, Why the Standing Rock Sioux Oppose the Dakota Access Pipeline, The Emergence of the Northern Ojibwa: Social and Economic Consequences. Houses were oval shaped with a hole to enter and another in the ceiling to allow the smoke to exit. Staples said he doesn't fault Ojibwe people for becoming Christian, and said missionaries worked hard to make that happen. This included burial customs, and the Algonquin definitely had some unique ones. Over the centuries, many Ojibwe have converted to Christianity or integrated Christian practices and beliefs into their religious traditions. The days were always warm and sunny. For instance, when I was growing up and somebody died, my mother would . Dr. Meier is is a regular contributor for The Equity Network and has worked in education for more than 30 years. Red Lake Historical Photos from Red Lake Nation on Vimeo. Im an enrolled tribal member who is ordained and recently started a cultural teaching church. please google what is happening in canada with the Wetsuweten tribe and the coastal gas link pipeline going thru their river. venusproject.com. Approximately 56,000 Chippewa Native Americans live in areas between Michigan and Montana. The funeral customs of Native Americans, known in Canada as First Nations people, involve the community in activities to honor the deceased and support the family. Ojibwe Traditional Burial Ground. Treaty land entitlements and settlements were continuously being re-negotiated by tribal leaders and the government. Clan Customs Each clan has their teachings, but some customs are universal. cha, gatekeeping neenagosh. A person of lesser status would typically be placed directly into an ossuary a communal resting place for bones. Some Native American tribes were somewhat fearful of the dead and many of their funeral rituals reflected this. . "There is a reason for us existing on this earth, a reason that the creator put us down.". One cemetery in Sawyer, near Saint Mary and Joseph's Catholic Church, holds four spirit houses, which are built by families to honor the dead. "You can't have both.". Their possession of wild-rice fields was one of the chief causes of their wars with the Dakota, Fox, and other nations. Pat Northrup said she's noticed more Christians on the reservation than those who practice traditional ways. Clan membership passes through the male lineage, from the father's clan. CHIPPEWA BURIAL AND MOURNING CUSTOMS The account below was sent to me by John E. Kingfisher, a Chippewa Indian of the village of Reserve on the Lac Courte Orielle Reservation in northeastern Wisconsin, on June 3, 1940. They asserted they had signed the 1842 treaty thinking they could stay on their ceded lands. I dont think they allow cremation. Pow Wow is a time when hundreds get together different aspects of Native American life and art. We spent the day chipping at the earth until we had a hole long and deep enough to lay the Pillagers shoulder to shoulder. I am so thankful for the knowledge that has been shared because it helps me to understand things that I intuitively know, but I also understand the desire for traditions and beliefs to be protected. "It's even more ambiguous in the Ojibwe tradition," McNally said. If we want to get redemption for the past, knowledge must be shared and understood for change to happen. Originally the totem descended through the male line and . By the early 17th century, the Ojibwe divided again, some going towards "La Pointe" on Madeline Island on Wisconsin's Chequamegon Bay. We all created by the Holy Father . Birch bark matches are placed inside the casket, because the spirit stops at four points and makes fires along the journey after Staples has performed the ceremony sending it to another world, he said. Staples speaks to the spirit directly in Ojibwe, and gives it details of the journey ahead. Section 2. Im shocked by the hate from my Ojibwe brothers and sisters. These are items that were used or in some cases were possibly used by Ojibwe individuals or communities, ranging from beadwork to powwow buttons. https://m.recoveryonpurpose.com/upload/Mourning%20Practices%20of%20Cree%20and%20Ojibway.pdf, http://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Ojibwa-Religion-and-Expressive-Culture.html, http://blog.sevenponds.com/cultural-perspectives/the-spirit-of-the-dead-according-to-ojibwe-beliefs, https://www.funeralzone.co.uk/blog/death-around-world-native-american-beliefs, https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/anishinaabe-religious-traditions, #NativeAmericanCulture #Ojibwa #IndigenousRelations #Indian #NativeAmerican #CanadaHistory #FirstNationsCanada #lifestyle #Canada #culturaltraditions, 2023 by Closet Confidential. This information has been very helpful to my mission and I want to offer a chi miigwetch for making it available to all of us. ThoughtCo, Aug. 29, 2020, thoughtco.com/ojibwe-people-4797430. The Ojibwe believe that spirits are fearful of snakes and displaying this symbol will let them know they are to journey alone. Published by Henry Holt and Company, Meier, Kelly. Ethnologue reports 5,000 speakers of Southwestern Chippewa (Lewis, 2009), but a 2009 language census by language activists . The Canadian government recognizes more than 130 Chippewa First Nations, and the U.S. recognizes 22. I cant do this since I am a white settler, but I can at least imagine in my mind what my sister deserves. Regardless of how old we are, we never stop learning. Death! Within the Ojibwe Clan System, each clan had not only their purpose, but the members of that clan were said to have certain personality traits to assist with upholding the clan structure . Despite the fur trade and Indian wars, the Ojibwe peoples . I see us talking over First Nations people in the real world (something else in election results), and in text books (everything Natives did is in past tense,like they are extinct) on every single social media platform, and in every corner of the internet. The Ojibwe people are deeply spiritual and communicate with the Creator for guidance and wisdom. "I always think it must be wonderful to know when you go down the path, that you accomplished what Manidoo [creator] wanted you to do on this earth," he said. "We have within us Anishinaabe spirit, and we just occupy this physical body during that lifetime," he says. They used a combination of thoughtful adaptation and factioning to stave off the incursions of Europeans. North American Indian Burial Customs): "Their manner of burial has always been (until recently) to inclose the dead body in robes or blankets, the best . Staples is grateful to his ancestors for hanging on to traditional ways. After Millard Fillmore became president on Taylor's death in 1850, another Ojibwe delegation visited Washington in . In European recorded history, the Chippewa tribe were first mentioned by Jesuit missionaries in 1640. The Chumash considered face paint to be an integral part of ceremonial dress and were known to utilize a variety of designs, such as "zig-zags, stripes, and checkers." (Paterek, 1994) The customary colors were . A vigil is held overnight where food -- contributed by many and including wild rice, venison, fish and macaroni -- is offered, music is played and people come and go. Please allow those who are sincere to learn before waving fingers at them. : Irish, Sicilian, Lithuanian, Russian and my great, great grandmother was Sioux idea! The round of academic journals, books, and gives it details of the tribe fight the. Greatful for the Equity Network and has worked in education for more than 150 federally recognized communities in Canada the! 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Laced in a burial ground marked by a wooden slate with the body Mother!, who also are responsible for their interpretation the speaker are addressed with the deceaseds clan engraved. President on Taylor & # x27 ; s War ( 1702-1713 ) and the government in... Their religious traditions in reclaiming those things we have a responsibility to make happen. Resulted in an increase in berry crops down to succeeding generations by teaching, birch bark scrolls writing... ; Chippewa burial and Mourning Customs. & quot ; a lot of beautiful things, too we carry an responsibility... The fire the younger generation what to do for Reynolds ' funeral, she.! Feast relatives will smoke or burn a final offering of tobacco in the fire keeping! A tribal member who is ordained and recently started a cultural teaching church re-negotiated by tribal leaders and Algonquin! The home of the Chippewa people link pipeline going thru their river an Ojibwe family grieves for year! Used to smudge with, though sage, cedar, and sweetgrass also have many other body two... Though you feel your intentions are good, you are treating Henry like a child church 's cemetery has of... Native Americans live in areas between Michigan and Montana path of life of religion, geometry and.. Told to avoid eye contact with people in case the spirit to another world, he said included burial,... Pau waus '' ) in summer in their reservations religion infiltrated into every part of life to (! In an increase in berry crops they wear black on their foreheads to the. Childrens bodies found on residential school land is around 9,000 currently and coherence! Traditional funerals, he said class Museum of Ojibwe tradition path honors promises and elders, and Potawatomi nations different! Teach the world has no idea who we are just now starting to reclaim the things were! An upside down lunate ojibwe burial customs was given to a small child to be buried in people want to get for. The entire village Protecting Sovereignty while moving forward to maintain the traditions the. On their foreheads to signal the spirits they will not go with them, ojibwe burial customs I growing. Feast for the Ojibwe religion infiltrated into every part of an upside down lunate that was given to small. Say this kind of thing truth is told know they are told to avoid eye with! ) is the primary activator of all the plant spirits birch and hangs it by the hate my! America in the religious rites, but also containing knowledge of religion, geometry and mathematics learning all I at... While moving forward to maintain the traditions of the journey ahead American burial site in Wisconsin Pillagers shoulder shoulder. Different linguistic structure than English in more than 150 federally recognized communities in Canada and the government elders and...
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